You are at this web site because you are interested in teaching an Oral Communication Focus (O) class or you already are teaching an O class and would like more ideas about assignments, giving feedback to students, etc. (Click here for an informational brochure for your students.)

We'd like to thank the Department of Communicology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa for the information at this site.

Here's an index of what follows on this page.

To request an "Oral Communication" ("O") designation
Rationale for an oral communication requirement
Oral communication defined
Types of acceptable assignments
Issues to consider when designing O assignments
Steps to effective oral communication--typical steps students should follow when preparing to give an oral presentation
Communication apprehension
Helping students manage communication apprehension
Evaluating student presentations
References/Bibliography

1. To request an Oral Communication (O) Focus designation

Instructors who are willing to meet the O Hallmarks are encouraged to submit a proposal to have their class designated as an "O" class. If you propose your course for the O designation, the Oral Communication Focus Board will review your proposal/course description to see if it meets the Hallmarks.

Hallmarks

Proposal Form

2. Rationale for Oral Communication Focus requirement

The National Communication Association has established basic oral communication competencies for college graduates. These competencies were culled from numerous articles published in top tier journals in the Speech Communication field. Among the competencies set forth by the National Communication Association are basic skills for informing, persuading, and relating to others. These skills include sending and receiving oral communication messages, message development and organization, adapting messages to the particular situation and audience, communicating interpersonally and in small groups, and evaluating the oral communication messages of others. (See National Communication Association web site for further information.)

Oral communication skills benefit students academically, interpersonally, and in their future careers. Students who participate in class discussions are more involved in their own learning. Students who can express themselves well find it easier to give oral presentations in class as well as to interact with their instructors and with other students. Employers seek applicants who have excellent oral communication skills.

Because UHM believes that its students should be prepared to use oral communication skills in a variety of contexts, including public presentations and group and interpersonal interactions, an O course is required for graduation.

3. Oral communication defined

Oral communication involves expressing and sharing ideas and information as well as influencing others through verbal and nonverbal symbols. Instructors who want to improve students' oral communication skills can design assignments that ask students to

inform - provide others with new information,
persuade - modify or change attitudes and/or behaviors, or to reinforce already-existing attitudes or behaviors, or
entertain or move - influence others' emotions.

4. Acceptable class assignments

Instructors of O Focus courses can use a variety of assignments to meet Hallmark 1 which states that students in O courses will "conduct or participate in a minimum of three oral communication assignments or a comparable amount of oral communication activity during the course. . . ."

Here are examples of acceptable class assignments:

Informative presentations or speeches, whether formal or informal
Persuasive or influence appeals (e.g., sales presentations, motivational presentations, appeals for policy changes)
Chapter or section presentations to the class (e.g., presenting course content, presenting journal articles)
Group presentations (e.g., presenting results of a group project to class)
Panel discussions (e.g., several students speaking with one another on a topic in front of an audience of peers)
Debates (individual or team)
Interviews (e.g., mock job interviews, research interviews, interrogations)
Facilitation and participation in class discussions, group discussions, community gatherings
Participation in outreach or service learning activities (e.g., tutoring, teaching, coaching, presentations)
Press conferences
Creative or aesthetic performances (e.g., storytelling, performance of literature, oral interpretations or readings)
Oral critiques of others’ performances or presentations

5. Issues for faculty members to consider when designing O assignments

Answering these five questions will help you effectively design O assignments. You can then translate your answers into assignment guideline sheets or into parts of your syllabus so that students will understand the purpose of the assignment and how they can succeed.

1. What is the purpose of the assignment? What are you trying to accomplish?

Examples

Help students learn the course content
Have students find and present supplementary course materials (to the class or a small group)
Improve students' communication skills
Give students opportunities to practice professional skills (e.g., interviewing, presenting at business meetings or academic conferences, performing for an audience)
Add variety to class sessions
Evaluate students' mastery of course content

2. How will my students, the physical environment, available technology, etc., affect the assignment?

Consider these items:

Students' prior experience with oral assignments; students' class standing
Small room vs. large room; moveable chairs vs. stationary chairs
Available technology (PowerPoint, television, VCR, video camera, overhead projector)

3. What do my students need to know to succeed?

Consider adding a statement or two about each of these items:

Purpose of the presentation (inform, persuade, entertain)
Assigned or choice of topic?
Types of topics that are allowed (if choice is given)
Speaking time; date of presentation
Individual or group presentation?
Question/answer section (discussion session) included?
Visual aid requirements
Materials required in addition to the oral presentation (notes, outline, paper, citations) and their format (e.g., typed, APA style guide)
Peer review of classmates' presentations
Videotaping of presentation
Grading criteria (see #4 below)

4. How will you give students feedback and grade/evaluate the presentations? [The O Focus Board will look to see how you meet Hallmark 3 in your proposal, "Each student will receive specific feedback, critiquing, and grading of the oral communication assignments or activities."]

Consider these:

Percentage of course grade [The Focus Board will also look at how you meet Hallmark 1: " ...at least 40% of the final course grade will be a function of the student’s oral communication activities."]
Letter grade; credit/no credit; +/-; etc.
Evaluators (self-evaluation; peer evaluation; instructor evaluation; non-class audience members)
Grading criteria
- features evaluated (content, delivery, additional materials such as an outline, etc.)
- forms or checklists for self-evaluation, peer, instructor, audience
Format of feedback
- written, oral, conference, etc.

5. How will you help students prepare? [When the O Focus Board reviews an O proposal, it will look for how Hallmark 2 is satisfied: Each student will receive explicit training, in the context of the class, in oral communication concerns relevant to the assignment or activity.]

Examples

Student-teacher conferences
Handouts, guidebooks
Demonstrations of oral communication techniques
Guidance in choosing and developing a topic, help with drafting the presentation, etc.
Class time for peer discussion and peer assistance

6. Steps to effective oral communication: Typical steps students should follow when preparing to give an oral presentation

Below are 9 steps that students can follow so that their oral communication presentation is successful.

Step 1. Determine general purpose

First, either assign or have students decide on the general purpose of their oral presentation: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain or move an audience.

Oral Communication Foundations & Impromptu Speaking (PowerPoint presentation)

PowerPoint Viewer from Microsoft - download free viewer if you do not have PowerPoint software.

Then, you can help your students by pointing out that effective oral communicators are concerned with three elements: (1) content; (2) organization and (3) delivery of messages.

Content is the actual information that is conveyed in an oral presentation.

Organization is how the presentation is structured, including the organizational pattern as well as the inclusion of an introduction, body, and conclusion to the message.

Delivery includes the verbal and nonverbal means by which the message is conveyed to the audience.

Step 2. Analyze the audience

Communicators often say things they regret or that are not well-received by audiences simply because the communicator failed to properly analyze his or her audience before speaking. Students must analyze their audience in order to tailor their message to that audience.

Speakers analyze their audience prior to a presentation so she/he can determine the knowledge level of an audience as well as factors such as likes and dislikes, attitudes, values, and so on. Speakers should also analyze demographic characteristics of an audience such as sex, age, ethnicity, religion, political affiliations, and so on. In short, a speaker should gather as much information as possible prior to giving a presentation, so that she or he presents the most useful, relevant information possible and avoids offending or embarrassing audience members during the presentation.

A speaker analyzes an audience by making observations of audience members prior to the presentation, or by having audience members complete a questionnaire that includes demographic and attitudinal information. Information about audience members in a particular organization can be provided by a contact person in the organization or from the organization’s Web site.

Audience Analysis (PowerPoint presentation, 5 slides)

PowerPoint Viewer from Microsoft - download free viewer if you do not have PowerPoint software.

Step 3. Determine the specific purpose

While a general purpose is to inform, to persuade, or to entertain or move an audience, a specific purpose indicates the thesis, or the specific content, of a presentation. For example, you may ask your students to give an informative presentation on the work of an eminent architect. The general purpose is to inform, and the specific purpose might be to provide the audience with information about the work of Frank Lloyd Wright. The specific purpose narrows the topic and focuses the presentation. The specific purpose should be stated in the presentation so the audience knows exactly what to expect.

Informative Speaking (PowerPoint presentation)

Persuasive Speaking (PowerPoint presentation)

PowerPoint Viewer from Microsoft - download free viewer if you do not have PowerPoint software.

Step 4. Research the presentation

Students should gather facts, figures, examples, testimony, and so on to present to their audience. This information is gathered, for example, from library sources, the Internet, interviews, periodicals.

Establishing Your Credibility & Presenting Evidence (PowerPoint presentation, 10 slides)

PowerPoint Viewer from Microsoft - download free viewer if you do not have PowerPoint software.

Step 5. Organize and outline the presentation

After gathering information regarding the topic of the presentation, students should organize the information. This requires determining an appropriate organizational pattern and dividing the information into major points.

Presentations can be organized chronologically, topically, spatially (how things relate to one another by location or position), or by cause-effect or problem-solution patterns. Typically, presentations contain two to five major points.

It is helpful to have students prepare written outlines of their presentations, including an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

The introduction of a presentation outline usually includes some type of device to gain the attention of the audience, such as a story, an anecdote, a quotation, or a question for the audience to think about or to answer aloud. Also in the introduction is the thesis or specific purpose statement, which is typically a single declarative sentence. Finally, it is helpful to include a sentence which previews each of the major points to be included in the body of the presentation.

The body of the presentation outline includes the major points and sub-points or details to be covered in the presentation.

The conclusion of the presentation outline includes a summary of the major points covered and a statement that concludes the presentation smoothly. Preparation of a concluding statement helps students avoid an awkward ending to the presentation.

Sample: Oral Presentation Outline Format for Students

Organizing (PowerPoint presentation)

Outlining (PowerPoint presentation)

Introductions & Conclusions (PowerPoint presentation)

PowerPoint Viewer from Microsoft - download free viewer if you do not have PowerPoint software.

Step 6. Prepare visual aids

It is useful to have visual representations of material in a presentation. Visual aids make a presentation more clear, interesting, and memorable. Visual aids help a speaker capture the attention of the audience and also make the presentation more understandable to the audience.

Types of visual aids that students may use include PowerPoint, overhead transparencies, videotapes or DVDs, objects, models, drawings, people, slides, maps, photographs and charts or graphs.

Since the purpose of using visual aids is to enhance a presentation by providing a visual representation, it is important that students follow some basic rules in using visual aids:

Visual aids should be substantive. Visual aids should add to the presentation

Visual aids should be easily seen by the audience. Words, charts, photos, and so on need to be large enough so that everyone in the room can see them. Visual aids that are too small to see do not add to a presentation; indeed, they compromise the credibility of the speaker.

Speakers should not obstruct the audience’s view of the visual aids. If a speaker displays visual aids on a screen in front of the room, he/she should not stand in front of the screen.

Maintain eye contact while using the visual aids. In other words, talk to the audience, not to the visual aid.

Explain the visual aids. A speaker cannot assume that the audience will understand the visual aids; interpret and explain the visual aids.

Do not pass objects among the audience. Speakers sometimes do this so that audience members can get a closer look at the object. However, if the object was too small, the speaker should not have used it. Passing objects among the audience is distracting. It would be better for the speaker to invite audience members to look at the objects after the presentation, or after class.

Use handouts appropriately. Unless a speaker will refer to a handout throughout the presentation, it is best to wait until after the presentation to distribute handouts. Audience members can become distracted by reading the handout rather than listening to the speaker.

Use appropriate visual aids. Dangerous or illegal visual aids should be avoided.

Practice the presentation with the visual aids. Students should prepare visual aids well enough in advance so they can practice their presentation with them. This will give the students a good indication of how long it will take to display and discuss the visual aids during the actual presentation in class.

Learn how to use the equipment in the classroom. It is helpful to emphasize to students the importance of planning visual aids in advance and making sure they know how to use any electronic or computer equipment ahead of time.

Many classrooms at UHM contain computers and other electronic equipment, and include instructions for using the equipment. To determine what equipment your classroom has, see the UHM Center for Instructional Support Web site: www.cis.hawaii.edu

Visual Aids (PowerPoint presentation)

PowerPoint Viewer from Microsoft - download free viewer if you do not have PowerPoint software.

Step 7. Rehearse the presentation

It is helpful for students to rehearse their presentations many times before delivering the presentation to the class. The best way to do so is for students to practice the presentation from beginning to end (from introduction to concluding statement), following their outline and incorporating their visual aids.

If you have given students a time limit for the presentation (e.g. 10-12 minutes), encourage them to time their presentation when they practice. Students often think that five minutes is a very long time to speak in front of the class, and are quite surprised to learn that their presentation was actually 15 minutes long!

Delivery & Nonverbal Cues (PowerPoint presentation, 7 slides)

PowerPoint Viewer from Microsoft - download free viewer if you do not have PowerPoint software.

Step 8. Deliver the presentation to the class

Finally, students are ready to give their presentations to the class. There are various modes of delivery, and it is helpful to direct students to use the most appropriate mode for the situation.

A manuscript mode of delivery involves writing a presentation word-for-word and reading the presentation to the audience. It is used when a speaker needs to be very precise in what she/he says. For example, the President of the United States primarily uses a manuscript mode so as not to say something inappropriate or inaccurate.

A memorized mode of delivery involves writing a presentation word-for-word and reciting the presentation from memory. It is used for shorter presentations, such as introducing a speaker or delivering a toast or a eulogy.

An impromptu mode of delivery involves very little or no preparation or practice time. It is used for "on-the-spot" presentations such as participating in class, giving directions to someone on the street, or for presenting results of in-class activities.

An extemporaneous mode of delivery involves thorough preparation and practice and is conversational in style. It is used for most types of in-class presentations because it allows students to use notes while they speak and allows for flexibility during a presentation. For example, if a student is presenting from a manuscript, he/she cannot adapt to audience feedback by deviating from their script. With extemporaneous delivery, students can adjust the complexity or the length of their message to fit the situation at hand. Perhaps the best argument for an extemporaneous mode of delivery is that it is conversational and therefore more interesting for the audience to listen to.

It is important to look at various aspects of delivery when evaluating a speaker: Gestures and movement, vocal variety, eye contact, and use of visual aids.

Gestures and movement. Speakers should be encouraged to move about the room as they speak, rather than standing behind a podium or lectern for the entire presentation. This movement makes the presentation more interesting to listen to, creates a more immediate environment in which the physical and psychological distance between the speaker and the audience is lessened, and also helps a speaker channel their nervous energy. A moderate amount of movement is best; more movement than simply standing in one place but not so much movement that it seems the speaker is pacing during the entire presentation. Gestures should not be planned but rather should occur naturally as a speaker delivers her/his presentation.

Vocal variety: Vocal variety includes tone of voice, the rate at which we speak, pitch, volume, proper pronunciation, articulation, and the use of pauses. Effective vocal variety is crucial to effective delivery. We are all familiar with speakers who talk so fast that their words become jumbled, or those who talk so slow and monotone that they put us to sleep.

Speakers should avoid using filled pauses such as "um," "uh," "like," and "you know." Speakers often vocalize pauses because they are uncomfortable with even a second of silence while standing before an audience. Emphasize to students that unfilled pauses are perfectly acceptable and can be used to emphasize important points in a presentation (e.g. the dramatic pause).

Eye contact and facial expression. Eye contact with an audience makes a speaker seem more believable and trustworthy and it also helps speakers gauge audience feedback. Speakers can use facial expressions to convey their feelings, attitudes and emotions. Appropriate facial expressions make a speaker more interesting to listen to and enhance a speaker’s credibility.

Step 9. Self assess the presentation

In our public speaking courses, student presentations are videotaped and the students watch the tape and write a self-evaluation of their performance. Even if videotaping is not possible, it is useful to have students reflect in some way on their presentation - the strengths of the presentation as well as things to work on for the next presentation.

Sample: Self Evaluation Form for Students

7. Communication apprehension

Many students suffer communication apprehension (CA) -- "a fear or anxiety associated with communicating" (Richmond & McCroskey, 1998). CA is quite common, especially when it comes to public speaking. Highly apprehensive students are hesitant to take courses where oral communication is a component, and do so only if they need to fulfill certain requirements for their major and/or graduation.

CA is experienced not only in public speaking, but in any oral communication situation such as interpersonal communication, meetings, small group communication, talking on the phone, employment interviews, and so on. CA is experienced differently by everyone. Some people are not apprehensive about communicating regardless of the situation.

Students can assess their level of apprehension in different settings by completing the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) (McCroskey, 1982).

Personal Report of Communication Apprehension - web format

Personal Report of Communication Apprehension - Acrobat (PDF) format for easy printing

8. Helping students manage communication apprehension

Here are a few tips for highly apprehensive students to help them deal with their fear of oral communication:

Prepare thoroughly. Outline the presentation and practice it several times before delivering the presentation to an audience.
Speak about a familiar topic. It is much easier to speak on topics that we already know about, rather than trying to tackle unfamiliar territory. Students sometimes choose topics because they know they can find a great deal of information on that topic. However, it is best to stick with topics that interest you and that are familiar.
Realize that you are not alone. Most people are apprehensive about speaking in public and just as nervous as everyone else about giving a class presentation.
Focus on getting the message across to the audience rather than on what the audience is thinking of you as a speaker. Realize that you feel more nervous than you actually look. The audience is focused on listening to your message, not on how nervous you look.
Use positive visualization. It is helpful to imagine yourself giving a successful presentation to an appreciative audience. Negative thoughts and doubts increase anxiety, whereas positive visualization makes you feel more comfortable and confident.
Practice relaxation techniques. It is helpful to manage speaking anxiety by using techniques such as deep-breathing, exercise, meditation, or yoga. Students may want to take a walk across campus before a presentation, for example.
Use visual aids in your presentation. Students report that using visual aids is helpful in managing anxiety. This is because the attention is diverted from the speaker to the visual aids and also because visual aids give the speaker something to work with while they speak. This gives the speaker something to do with their hands and helps to channel nervous energy.
Practice. The more a speaker practices, the more familiar he/she is with the information and the more comfortable he/she will be during the actual presentation. The value of practice cannot be emphasized enough when it comes to giving class presentations.

9. Evaluating student presentations: Written feedback from the teacher

Perhaps the best way to provide written feedback of students’ oral presentations is to use an evaluation form with pre-set categories as well as room for open-ended comments. The sample formats presented here offer checklists for content, organization, and delivery.

Written comments from the instructor may include perceived limitations of the presentation (e.g. "I didn’t hear a thesis statement") and positive feedback (e.g. "Presentation was very well organized").

It is helpful to provide specific feedback so that students know what to work on for their next presentation (e.g. "Work on eye contact so that you are looking to all areas of the room, rather than just to your right side").

Because public speaking is very difficult for many people, it is especially important to emphasize the positive aspects of the presentation as well as areas for improvement when evaluating student presentations.

Sample: Informative Evaluation Form - web page format
Sample: Informative Evaluation Form - Acrobat (PDF) for easy printing

Sample: Persuasive Evaluation Form - web page format
Sample: Persuasive Evaluation Form - Acrobat (PDF) for easy printing)

If you'd like to create your own evaluation form, below is a list of common criteria. Select categories/features and modify to meet your needs. You can also have your students help by participating in the creation of an evaluation form.

Inventory of Evaluation Categories/Features

INTRODUCTION

The speaker gains the audience's attention and interest.

The speaker establishes his/her credibility.

The speaker relates the topic to audience

The speaker sets up central claim.

The central idea/main message is stated at the beginning.

The speaker previews the presentation.

The whole talk is outlined early in the presentation.

The introduction is brief in proportion to the length of the talk.

The guiding research question is stated.

The importance of the research question is stated.

The speaker establishes the significance of topic for the audience.

BODY

The speaker relies on variety of supporting materials.

If the methods are illustrated, a matrix, flow chart, or other diagram is used.

The speaker uses sound reasoning.

The speaker uses main points to support central idea.

The speaker uses supporting material to substantiate main points.

Research methods are summarized in only enough detail to support the results.

The evidence is drawn from authoritative sources.

The supporting material is relevant and specific.

The speaker cites the source of the evidence.

CONCLUSION

The speaker signals end of presentation

The speaker restates central idea

The speaker leaves a vivid impression of presentation

The conclusions are stated at the end in a form to reinforce the message.

The conclusions are concise.

GENERAL CONTENT

The speaker presents ideas in a clear manner.

The speaker states one point at a time.

The speaker fully develops each point.

The presentation is cohesive.

The topic is appropriate.

The topic is worthwhile.

The presentation is properly focused.

A clear train of thought is followed and involves the audience.

The speaker makes main points clear.

The speaker sequences main points effectively.

The speaker includes internal summaries.

The outline is repeatedly referenced to provide signposts.

The speaker provide effective signposts.

The speaker provides smooth transitions.

The format of graphs is described before focusing on the content.

TIME

The talk fits the time limit.

Enough time is spent on each visual aid to allow the audience to absorb the information.

VISUAL AIDS

The speaker faces the audience while speaking (speaker glances at the machine, not at the screen, while speaking).

The slides have large, readable text (appropriate size for room).

Each slide makes only a single point.

There are five or fewer lines of text on each slide.

Text is concise, having only a phrase or a few words per line.

Background of slides is subordinate to text.

Animation contributes to message instead of distracting the audience.

Graphs are readable by all in the room.

Slides have been prepared specifically for oral presentation.

DELIVERY/MECHANICS

The speaker does not read the presentation.

The speaker does not apologize for the presentation.

The speaker always faces the audience when speaking.

The pointer is used as a precise tool.

The speaker maintains strong eye contact.

The speaker gestures appropriately.

There are no unnecessary gestures or distracting mannerisms.

The speaker effectively uses non-verbal signals.

The speaker has good posture.

The speaker's facial expressions are effective.

The speaker talks slowly and repeats key ideas.

The speaker's voice can be clearly heard by all in the room.

The speaker varies volume, pitch, and rate.

The speaker uses pauses effectively.

The speaker varies the length of statements.

The speaker articulates and pronounces words correctly.

The speaker demonstrates confidence.

The presentation is aimed at a specific audience.

The presentation is adapted to address the audience needs.

Language is free from unexplained jargon and acronyms.

Language is appropriate to audience

Language is appropriate to topic is concrete vivid and specific

Speaker uses alliteration, parallel phrasing, imagery, or other rhetorical devices

The talk has been practiced to refine the flow, message, and length.

QUESTION AND ANSWER OR DISCUSSION SESSION

The speaker carefully listens to questions.

The speaker asks for clarification of the question when needed.

The speaker answers the questions that are asked.

The speaker answers succinctly.

The speaker provides clear answers to questions.

Evaluating student presentations: Written feedback from peers

Students learn critical thinking and listening skills by completing written evaluations of peer performances. The evaluation forms above can be modified to become student peer evaluation forms. It is sometimes helpful to have students complete peer evaluations anonymously, to insure the most useful and honest feedback.

Sample: Informative Presentation Peer Evaluation Form - web page format
Sample: Informative Presentation Peer Evaluation Form - Acrobat (PDF) for easy printing

Sample: Persuasive Presentation Peer Evaluation Form - web page format
Sample: Persuasive Presentation Peer Evaluation Form - Acrobat (PDF) for easy printing

Listening & Providing Feedback (PowerPoint presentation)

PowerPoint Viewer from Microsoft - download free viewer if you do not have PowerPoint software.

Evaluating student presentations: Oral feedback from the teacher

Oral evaluation may include both positive comments and areas for improvement. Like feedback on any assignment, it is helpful to offer constructive criticism without personally attacking the character of the speaker.

Beebe and Beebe (2003) suggest the following to teachers and students for providing oral or written feedback of oral presentations:

Be descriptive. Describe what you observed the speaker doing rather than passing judgment. e.g. Say "I did not hear a concluding statement" rather than "That was a stupid way to end your presentation."
Be specific. Give the speaker enough information so that she/he can improve for the next presentation. e.g. Say "I would increase the font size on your PowerPoint slides because I had trouble reading the slides" rather than "Your visual aids were ineffective."
Be positive. "Sandwich" comments such that you begin with a positive comment, then offer suggestions for improvement, and end with a positive comment.
Be constructive. Give specific suggestions for improvement rather than simply telling the speaker what they did wrong.
Be sensitive. Use tactful language in giving feedback rather than offering blunt suggestions or comments. e.g. Say "Speak a bit louder so those in the back of the room can hear you" rather than "I couldn’t hear a word you said -speak up!"
Be realistic. Give the speaker feedback about things that he/she can actually change. Telling a speaker that she/he is too short is not helpful.

10. References/Bibliography

Beebe, S.A., & Beebe, S.J. (2003). Public speaking: An audience-centered approach. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Lucas, S.E. (2001). The art of public speaking, 7^th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

McCroskey, J.C. (1982). An Introduction to Rhetorical Communication, 4^th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Richmond, V.P., & McCroskey, J.C. (1998). Communication: Apprehension, avoidance, and effectiveness, 5^th ed.. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Schaller, K. (2002). Principles of effective public speaking: Student workbook. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

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