Resources I:
People Using Places

RELATED READINGS

• Geography for Life: National Geography Standards, Chapter 4, pp. 85-86, 92-95, and 98-100.
• Teacher¼s Guide: Sustainable Development

1. INTRODUCTION
   1. Population growth and distribution are not evenly distributed.

   2. Global economy has grown 3% yearly since 1950.

   3. Impacts the environment and availability of resources.
      1. Available land is threatened by overgrazing, agriculture and forestry.
      2. Access to safe drinking water is hampered by poverty, poor infrastructure and pollution of waterways and ground water.
      3. The results of projected urban growth are mixed - there is more access to health care and education but encroaches on farmland, destroys wildlife habitat, etc.
      4. Ocean resources are succumbing to overfishing and disease from pollution.
      5. Logging and agriculture theaten forest resources.
      6. Fossil fuel use contributes to atmospheric pollution.

   4. Sustainability addresses the issues of differential patterns of consumption, rapid population growth, and the combined impact on the natural environment.

      Global environmental trends will be dominated by eight countries (E8)

      1. The industrialized countries shape trends due to their economic strength, high level of material consumption, and dominance of technology.
         1. United States
         2. Russia
         3. Japan
         4. Germany

      2. The developing countries¼ influence is determined by their large populations, rapid economic development, and rich diversity of wildlife.
         1. China
         2. India
         3. Indonesia
         4. Brazil

2. RESOURCES

   How do culture, location, and scale affect what is considered a resource and the resource classification?

   1. Resources and reserves.
      1. A resource is something a human population perceives to be necessary and useful to its economic and material well-being.
      2. A reserve is a resource that has been discovered and can be used under existing economic and technological conditions.
      3. There is an undeven distribution of resources and reserves over Earth's surface.

   2. Non-renewable resources exist in finite amounts.
      1. These resources are not replaced or they are replaced at a rate slower than the rate of use.
      2. Examples include metals, petroleum, natural gas, and coal.

   3. Renewable resources can be consumed and replenished.
      1. Flow types of renewable resources reproduce themselves and are directly affected by human action.
         1. Plants
         2. Animals
         3. Soil

      2. Continuous types of renewable resources are always available but are modified by human action.
         1. Inexhaustible (energy from the sun, tides, and wind).
         2. Amenity landscapes (from wilderness to farmland).
         3. Common property (air, water, ecological systems).

   4. Resources essential for human survival include air, food, and water.
      1. Air is considered a common property resource freely available to all.
      2. Food resources are dependent upon a complex interaction of human and physical systems, including soil and water.
      3. Water is the most essential.

3. SOIL RESOURCES FOR FOOD PRODUCTION

   How does soil function as a resource to support human populations?

   What influences the variation in soils found in different places?

   How does human activity affect soils?

   How may soils be conserved and managed for sustainable use?

   "The nation that destroys its soil destroys itself."
   (Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1937)

   1. Soil Composition
      1. Inorganic materials provide the mineral particles of the soil.
      2. Organic matter is derived from decayed plant material, roots, fungi, and animal life.
      3. Air is held in the pore spaces of the soil and is necessary for plants and animals living in the soil.
      4. Water is also held in the pore spaces and is necessary for the chemical processes which make nutrients available.

   2. Formation of soils.
      1. The formation of soils is a complex process involving 5 factors, expressed as:

         S = f¼ (Cl, O, P, R, T)
         Soil (S) is a function (f¼) of:

         • Climate (Cl)
         • Organisms (O)
         • Parent material (P)
         • Relief or topography (R)
         • Time (T)

      2. A fully developed soil has a distinct profile in which different horizons or layers are discernible.
         1. Top Soil
            • O Horizon: Organic material
            • A Horizon: Zone of leaching

         2. Sub Soil
            • B Horizon: Zone of accumulation
            • C Horizon: Weathered parent material
      (FIGURE 10) Soil Profile
      

   3. Physical and chemical properties of soil.
      1. Color may impart information about the mineral, organic, and water content of the soil.
      2. Texture refers to the „feel¾ of the soil and is expressed as the relative proportions of various sized particles.
      3. Structure refers to the shapes taken by clusters of soil particles.
         1. Granular
         2. Blocky
         3. Platy
         4. Columnar

      4. The water characteristics of a soil are affected by the texture and structure.
         1. The infiltration rate determines how much water enters the soil during precipitation.
         2. The water-holding capacity of a soil determines the maximum amount of water the soil can retain.

      5. Nutrient status refers to the availability of elements essentail to support plant life.
      6. The pH scale values range from 0-14 and indicate whether a soil is netural (7), basic or alkaline (above 7), or acidic (below 7).

   4. Soil is one of Earth's most valuable resources as it supports the primary producers of the food web, green plants. From these, energy and nutrients are cycled to suceeding levels of consumers, including humans.
      1. Anchors plants by providing supports for root structures.
      2. Properties affect the range of plant dispersal.
      3. Recycles nutrients as bacteria and microorganisms living in the soil convert nutrients to forms that plants can use.
      4. Stores and filters water supplies.

   5. Soils must be managed properly to maintain them for sustainable use. A degraded soil is one which has been affected by human processes such that its current or future capacity to support human life is lowered.
      1. Globally, there is a massive, ongoing redistribution of soil, mostly into the oceans.
      2. Degradation includes:
         1. Accelerated erosion by water and wind which removes valuable topsoil and leads to increased sedimentation in rivers and water bodies.
         2. Alteration of the chemical and nutrient characteristics of the soil so that the nutrient cycle is harmed.
         3. Physical compaction and destruction of soil texture and structure which lowers fertility and destroys ecosystems.
         4. Increased salinity of soils which removes them from use and contributes to increased salinity of surface and ground water.

      3. Causes of soil degradation differ in world regions.
      (FIGURE 11) Causes of soil degradation
      

   6. Sustainable use of soil involves careful management, reduction of erosion, and restoration of fertility.

      1. Erosion control includes:
         1. Conservation or no-till agriculture.
         2. Terracing to reduce slope angle.
         3. Contour plowing.
         4. Strip cropping.
         5. Agroforestry.
         6. Gulley reclamation.
         7. Windbreaks.
         8. Careful classification of land so that easily eroded soils are removed from crop production.

      2. Fertility is maintained and restored by using:
         1. Organic fertilizers (animal manure or green manure).
         2. Crop rotation.
         3. Inorganic fertilizers.

4. WATER RESOURCES FOR FOOD PRODUCTION
   1. The sources of water for food production include:
      1. Precipitation
      2. Soil moisture
      3. Groundwater

   2. Water is a renewable resource.
      1. At a global scale, water is a continuous resource.
      2. At a local scale, water may become a flow resource when its availability is afffected by use.
      3. It may also be regarded as a non-renewable, finite resource in areas where water consumption depends not on precipitation, but on groundwater that accumulated in aquifers many thousands of years ago.

5. PATTERNS OF FOOD CONSUMPTION

   What are the patterns of food consumption?

   What populations are at risk to receive adequate food supplies?

   1. The International Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) projects that by the year 2000, over 65 countries with some 30% of the world population will be unable to feed their people.
   2. Only 15 plant and 8 animal species supply 90% of the world food supply.
      1. Rice is the primary staple for about 50% of the world's people.
      2. Rice, wheat, and maize provide two-thirds of all food energy.
      3. Root crops (yams, plantains, cassava) and pulses (beans, chickpeas, lentils) add to the diet.

   3. Food consumption patterns vary by quantity of food and quality of food available from international to individual level.
      1. Lack of adequate calories (food energy) is undernutrition.
      2. Lack of protein is malnutrition. Diets based on cereals and starchy roots/tubers need to be supplemented with meat, fish, eggs, dairy products and/or pulses.
      (TABLE 6) Percentage of energy derived from staple foods and animal products, 1992
      

   4. Food is not distributed equally among the world's people because of differences in soil, climate, political and economic power, and the average per capita income.
   5. Food is obtained by producing it or by importing it.

6. PATTERNS OF FOOD PRODUCTION

   What are the patterns of food production?

   1. Food production patterns vary, depending on the scale of inquiry: global, world region, national, or local.
      1. Global food production from 1950 through the early 1980s kept pace with population growth but not currently.
      2. Total continental food production has generally increased but not the per capita food production (see Table 7).
      3. At the national level the inability of food output to keep pace with population growth is more widespread.
      (TABLE 7) Food resources and agriculture
      

   2. Food production may be increased by increasing the land areas under cultivation; this accounts for 8% of the increase in food production since the 1960s (see Table 8).
      1. Expanding cropland will be limited worldwide.
         1. Most potential cropland is in remote areas of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America which will require new infrastructures and financial backing.
         2. The soil quality and terrain of nearly 75% of potential cropland in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa make it unsuitable for many crops.
         3. At least 45% of the land is forested or in protected areas.

      2. Irrigation agriculture has opened arid lands for cultivation.
         1. Worldwide, irrigation is used on 17% of all cropland.
         2. Stresses water supplies and diminishes soil productivity through salinization and waterlogging of soils.

   3. Food production may be increased by increasing the yield of land areas under cultivation; this accounts for 92% of the increase in food production since the 1960s (see Table 8).
      1. Green Revolution.
         1. Monocultures of selectively bred or genetically engineered high-yield varieties of crops.
         2. Heavy use of fertilizers, pesticides, and water.
         3. Increased intensity and frequency of cropping.
         4. Extensive use of fossil fuel.

      2. Depends on fertile soil, water, and extensive use of fossil fuel to run the machinery; uses 8% of the world¼s oil output.
   (TABLE 8) Growth of cereal production attributed to increased area and increased yields, 1961-63 to 1988-90 (%)
   

7. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

   In what ways do the human and physical environments interact in agricultural systems? In sustainable agirucultural systems?

   What types of agricultural systems exist in different world areas?

   1. Food production links the human and physical environment in agricultural systems. Sustainable agriculture manages and conserves each dimension in the system.
      1. Consumption patterns, available technology, and money.
      2. Genetic diversity of crops.
      3. Available land.
      4. Climate, soil, and water.

   2. Agricultural systems.
      1. Industrialized agribusiness.
      2. Traditional agriculture.

   3. Sustainable agriculture in the United States, as expressed by the President's Council on Development.

      "Sustainable agriculture is an important system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will, over the long term, satisfy human food and fiber needs; enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends; make the most efficient use of both nonrenewable resources and on-farm/ranch resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls; sustain the economic viability of farm/ranch operations; and enhance the quality of life for farmers/ranches and society as a whole." (President's Council on Sustainable Development, Sustainable America. Washington, DC: USGPO, 1996:126).

      1. Fundamental to conservation and stewardship of natural resources.
      2. Four levels at which it is important to sustainable development.
         1. Field: sustainable use of technology and natural resources (soil and water) to maintain agricultural productivity.
         2. Farm: financial viability important for economic health of the agriculture sector and development and quality of life of rural communities.
         3. Ecosystem: health and sustainability depend heavily on agricultural activities as agirculture uses large amounts of land and water.
         4. National: agricultural productivity determines food prices in the domestic market and influences the nation's ability to compete in the export market.

   4. Sustainable agriculture, or low-input agriculture, is seen by many as the key to reducing world hunger, poverty, and the harmful environmental effects of both industrialized and traditional agriculture. Suggested procedures and policies include:
      1. Reduce waste of irrigation water.
      2. Minimize soil erosion, salinization, and waterlogging.
      3. Combine traditional high-yield polyculture and modern monoculture methods for growing crops.
      4. Increase use of organic fertilizers.
      5. Emphasize biological pest control and integrated pest management.
      6. Reduce detruction of natural forests, grasslands, and wetlands for producing foods by emphasizing increased yields using sustainable methods.
      7. Reduce use and waste of fossil fuels and shift to alternative sources of energy.
      8. Subsidize sustainable farming and phase out governmental subsidies for unsustainable farming.
      9. Increase research on sustainable agriculture.
      10. Establish training programs in sustainable agriculture.
      11. Integrate agriculture, population, urban and rural, energy, health, climate, water resource, soil resource, land use, pollution, and biodiversity protection policies.