Reflections on Talcott Parsons' theory of social systems
Richard W. Chadwick
Parson's (1902-1979, a Harvard sociologist) hypothesized that all social systems (societies) perform four basic functions around which they develop specialized subsystems:
- Adaptation to the environment: economic systems are specialized to perform this function for society.
- Goal attainment: all humans set and act to attain goals, and act together to attain goals. Homeostatic mechanisms in biology perform
- Integration: individuals need to learn to communicate and perform tasks of value to each other and their collectivities. Educational organizations perform this function for people and organizations of all ages.
- Latent-tension management or
Pattern-maintenance: individuals, groups and organizations break down for many reasons, from inner personal conflicts and chemical imbalances to natural disasters and war. Religion, medicine, psychological counseling, social work, volunteer and non-profit organizations, all perform the function of restoring and recovering from such breakdowns or malfunctions.
Societal subsystems
| Economic | Political
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| Educational | Religion
Medicine
Counseling
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Each of these functions are performed by different subsystems in societies that have specialized and differentiated them. In smaller societies and in groups of individuals (families, clubs, organizations of all kinds), one can find all these functions performed as well, but usually in a less differentiated way.
The adaptive function is performed by the economic subsystems, the goal-attainment function by the political subsystems, the integrative function by the educational subsystems, and the latent-tension or pattern-maintenance function by the various religious, medical, and counseling subsystems. Each subsystem is vertically integrated to different degrees and at different levels (individual, small groups, families, clans, organizations, and institutions).
Social change
| Values - cultural system (language, customs)
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| Institutions - organizational norms, expectations
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| Organizations - individuals working together to pursue common, interdependent goals
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| Individuals - personality systems
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In Parson's theory, social change occurs as a coping response to frustration. At the individual level, frustration is caused by goals not being met as expected, so coping strategies are activated. If frustration continues, the organization within which it takes place is affected, causing an organizational response. If the organization is ineffectual in attaining its goals, institutional norms are questioned and and effort to change them to reduce the frustration is initiated. Finally, if the institutional changes effected do not seem to reduce frustration, basic values are questioned.
Related links:
Paul Gingrich on Parsons (includes a short biography of Parsons)
Iran Virtual Library on Parsons