Methods

  • Step 1: Collect functional trait data from a pool of candidate species across East Hawaiʻi.

About the functional traits approach

Functional traits are a series of measurements that inform the species’ role within a given environment. We looked at a total of 15 functional traits:

Table listing 15 functional traits: Leaf:petiole ratio, leaf thickness, leaf mass per area, foliar nitrogen (%), foliar carbon (%), foliar carbon:nitrogen, foliar phosphorus (%), stem specific gracity (g/cm), water-use efficiency, max plant height (m), seed mass (g), stature, canopy architecture, leaf area (cm^2), and water content (%).

Using these traits, we created communities that fostered either slow or moderate carbon turnover rates and to test ecological theory regarding complementary1 or redundant2 trait space. Plant species on the slow end of the spectrum have low rates of resource acquisition and processing, which requires leaf, stem, and root traits that are more conservative and efficient in resource use than plant species on the fast end of the spectrum. Being a slow species is advantageous under low-resource conditions because resource conservation traits enhance survival, but being a slow species can be a drawback under higher-resource conditions since they may be outcompeted by faster species. Fast species were not included because species with trait values at the fast end of the economics spectrum tend to be invasive in Hawaiian lowland wet forests3.

Liko Nā Pilina uses a hybrid forest approach, composing communities of both native plant species and non-invasive introduced species, including canoe plants that were brought to Hawaiʻi by the Polynesians and more recent introductions as well. Visit our native & introduced species page to learn more about our plants.

This project explores four different plot treatments. Select the treatment to see what species were outplanted to make up that community. These are in addition to native species that were left in the plots, namely ʻŌhiʻa lehua (Metrocideros polymorpha), Lama (Diospyros sandwicensis), Kōpiko (Psychotria hawaiiensis), and Kōlea lau nui (Myrsine lessertiana). Select a treatment to learn more about the plant species included within it.

Slow Redundant
Moderate Redundant
Slow Complementary
Moderate Complementary

For more information, refer to our module on functional trait-based restoration, or read the 2016 Liko Nā Pilina Report.

  1. Species with relatively different functional traits make up community ↩︎
  2. Species with relatively similar functional traits make up community ↩︎
  3. Ostertag, R., S. Cordell, J. Michaud, T. Colleen Cole, J.R. Schulten, K.M. Publico, and J.H. Enoka. 2009. “Ecosystem and Restoration Consequences of Invasive Woody Species Removal in Hawaiian Lowland Wet Forest.” Ecosystems 12: 503–15.
    Zimmerman, N., R.F. Hughes, S. Cordell, P. Hart, H.K. Chang, D. Perez, R.K. Like, and R. Ostertag. 2008. “Patterns of Primary Succession of Native and Introduced Plants in Lowland Wet Forests in Eastern Hawai’i.” Biotropica 40: 277-284. ↩︎
Niu (Coconut) — Cocos nucifera Family: Arecaceae Polynesian-Introduced Habitat: Dry to mesic, coastal Elevation: Sea level to 600 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: Not only an excellent food source, niu can also be used for oil, rope, weaving, thatching, and endless other possibilities. Ka niu peʻahi kanaka o Kaipalaoa (1502) The man-beckoning coco palms of Kaipalaoa
ʻUlu — Artocarpus altilis Family: Moraceae Polynesian-Introduced Habitat: Mesic to wet, coastal Elevation: sea level to 650 m Outplanted in: Moderate Redundant, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: An ʻulu tree is traditionally planted when a child is born to ensure that the child has a lifetime of food. ʻAʻohe ʻulu e loaʻa i ka pōkole o ka lou (213) No breadfruit can be reached when the picking stick is too short
ʻŌhiʻa ʻai — Syzygium malaccense Family: Myrtaceae Polynesian-Introduced Habitat: Mesic to wet, high humidity Elevation: sea level to 600 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant Fun Fact: ʻŌhiʻa ʻai, also known as mountain apple, not only has delicious fruits, but can also be used medicinally. Traditionally, the bark is used to treat sore throats and deep cuts, and the leaves can be crushed and injested as a treatment for bronchitis. ʻŌhiʻa noho malu (2362) Mountain apple in the shade (Said of a beautiful person compared to an ʻōhiʻa ʻai that ripens perfectly in the shade)
Noni — Morinda citrifolia Family: Rubiaceae Polynesian-Introduced Habitat: Dry to wet, coastal Elevation: 1 to 800 m Outplanted in: Slow Complementary Fun Fact: Noni is not known for being particularly tasty. However, it is well known for its medicinal properties, used to treat a variety of ailments. The roots and bark can also be used to create a dye for kapa. Noni is the kinolau of Kū, the Hawaiian god of war. He noni no Kaualehu, he pūhai aʻa (845) It is a noni tree of Kaualehu whose roots are in shallow ground
Milo — Thespesia populnea Family: Malvaceae Indigenous Habitat: Dry to wet forest with volcanic soil, coastal Elevation: Sea level to 150 m Outplanted in: Slow Complementary, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: Milo flowers start out bright yellow with a maroon center in the morning, and fade to orange throughout the day. Milo is traditionally used in cordage, to produce tannin, dye, oil, medicine and gum, and also skillfully crafted into food bowls called ‘umeke ‘ai. He milo ka lāʻau, mimilo ke aloha (818) Milo is the plant; love goes round and round
Manakō (Mango) — Mangifera indica Family: Anacardiaceae Introduced Habitat: Dry to wet, coastal Elevation: Sea level to 1,200 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant, Moderate Redundant, Slow Complementary Fun Fact: Mango was introduced to Hawaiʻi in the late 1800s. Although the fruit is delicious, you must be careful when picking it! The white sap that oozes from the fruit and stem during harvesting is toxic and can cause rashes or blistering, much like poison ivy, which is in the same family.
Monkeypod — Samanea saman Family: Fabaceae Introduced Habitat: Dry to wet forest, riparian corridors Elevation: Sea level to 300 m Outplanted in: Moderate Redundant, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: Native to South and Central America, monkeypod trees are stars when it comes to carbon sequestration. One mature tree can absorb 28.5 tons of carbon per year!
Pea (Avocado) — Persea americana Family: Lauraceae Introduced Habitat: Mesic to wet forest, well drained soils Elevation: Sea level to 2,500 m Outplanted in: Moderate Redundant, Slow Complementary Fun Fact: There are 107 varieties of avocado grown on Hawaiʻi Island. Not only are they delicious, but you can also use the pits and skins to make a dusty-rose colored dye.
Kukui — Aleurites moluccanus Family: Euphorbiaceae Polynesian-Introduced Habitat: Mesic to wet forest, gallery forests Elevation: Sea level to 800 m Outplanted in: Slow Complementary, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: Kukui has an abundance of uses, from creating lei with the leaves and nuts, to spreading the oil over the surface of the sea to allow fishermen to see the fish more clearly. The most well-known use, which Kukui gets its name from, is lighting the oily nuts to use as a light source. Ka malu hālau loa o ke kukui (1474) The long shelter of the kukui trees
False Kamani — Terminalia catappa Family: Combretaceae IntroducedHabitat: Mesic to wet forest, coastal Elevation: Sea level to 400 m Outplanted in: Moderate Redundant Fun Fact: False kamani was introduced by the first European settlers for shade and as an ornamental. It is native to southeast Asia and the Pacific.
Kamani — Calophyllum inophyllum Family: Calophyllaceae Polynesian-Introduced Habitat: Dry to mesic to wet forest, coastal Elevation: Sea level to 200 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant, Slow Complementary Fun Fact: Kamani was brought to Hawaiʻi by early Hawaiians for the utility of the wood, which could be fashioned into waʻa, ʻumeke, and food vessels. In kapa making, the fruit can be used for dye, the flowers for scenting, and the oil for waterproofing.
Hame — Antidesma platyphyllum Family: Phyllanthaceae Endemic Habitat: Mesic to wet forest Elevation: 500 to 1,100 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant ** No longer present in the plots due to high mortality Fun Fact: Hame has edible fruits that can also be used to make a red dye. The wood is traditionally used as an anvil to prepare wauke fibers for kapa.
Loulu — Pritchardia beccariana Family: Arecaceae Endemic Habitat: Dry to mesic to wet forest, coastal Elevation: 300 to 1,270 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant, Slow Complementary, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: In Molokaʻi moʻolelo, a person could use loulu leaves as wings to glide on the wind from Molokaʻi to Maui. However, they would only succeed if they were good with their naʻau and ʻaumakua.
Kōlea lau nui — Myrsine lessertiana Family: Primulaceae Endemic Habitat: Mesic to wet forests Elevation: 300 to 2,290 m Outplanted in: Moderate Redundant, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: A red dye made from the sap of Kōlea is traditionally used to dye kapa. Evidence of Kōlea char in ancient oceanside fire bits on Oahu show that it once grew at much lower elevations than it is found at today.
Hāpuʻu — Cibotium spp. Family: Cibotiaceae Endemic Habitat: Mesic and wet forest Elevation: 250 to 1,700 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant, Moderate Redundant Fun Fact: Our plots have two endemic species of hāpuʻu: hāpuʻu pulu (C. glaucum), which is known for the golden hairs at the base of the fronds, and hāpuʻu iʻi (C. menziesii) which is characterized by black hairs at the base of the fronds. Hapuʻu is considered a famine food because it takes so long to prepare. He hāpuʻu ka ʻai he ʻai make (568) If the hāpuʻu is the food, it is the food of death
Alaheʻe — Psydrax odoratus Family: Rubiaceae Indigenous Habitat: Dry shrubland, dry to mesic forest, sometimes wet forest Elevation: 10 to 860 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant, Moderate Redundant, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: Alaheʻe is the kinolau of Kanaloa. Its leaves can be used to create a black dye, resembling the ink of its ocean counterpart, the heʻe (octopus). The dense wood is often used to create fishing implements.
Hala — Pandanus tectorius Family: Pandanaceae Indigenous Habitat: Coast or slopes of mesic valleys Elevation: Sea level to 600 m Outplanted in: Slow Redundant, Slow Complementary, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: Lei hala are traditionally used for funerals and to honor the dead. The leaves are often used for weaving; people once demonstrated their wealth based on how many woven hala mats they had stacked in their home. He iki hala au no Keaʻau, ʻaʻohe pōhaku ʻalā e nahā ai (624) I am a small hala fruit of Keaʻau but there is no rock hard enough to smash me
Māmaki — Pipturus albidus Family: Urticaceae Endemic Habitat: Mesic to wet forest Elevation: 70 to 1,870 m Outplanted in: Slow Complementary, Moderate Complementary Fun Fact: Māmaki can be made into a tea that is both calming and good for the circulatory system. The fruit is traditionally eaten by women to aid in child birth. Māmaki is the host plant for the increasingly rare King Kamehameha butterfly.
Neneleau — Rhus sandwicensis Family: Anacardiaceae Endemic Habitat: Dry to wet disturbed areas Elevation: 150 to 750 m Outplanted in: Moderate Redundant, Slow Complementary Fun Fact: Neneleau was one of few native plants that was able to re-colonize old sugar cane fields in which the soil had been severely degraded and contaminated with toxins like arsenic. Pua ka neneleau, momona ka wana (2696) When the neneleau blooms, the sea urchin is fat
Hawaiʻi ʻOhe — Polyscias hawaiensis Family: Araliaceae Endemic Habitat: Mesic to wet forest Elevation: 150 to 800 m Outplanted in: Moderate Redundant Fun Fact: The ʻOhe is among trees at Maunaloa, Molokaʻi posessed by the poison gods, Kāneikaulanaʻula and Kahuilaokalani, and the goddess Kapo. To tamper with the wood is to invite serious trouble. The berries are traditionally eaten by mothers to help produce milk that improves the growth and health of their baby.
Lama — Diospyros sandwicensis Family: Ebenaceae Endemic Habitat: Dry to mesic forest Elevation: 5 to 1,220 m Lama was already present at the project site and was left during clearing; it is therefore found in all treatments though none were outplanted. Fun Fact: The wood of lama is traditionally used medicinally and to fence off areas that are kapu such and for heiau construction. The small, red fruits are edible when ripe! Lama translates to “light”, as the plant is associated with enlightenment.
Kōpiko — Psychotria hawaiiensis Family: Rubiaceae Endemic Habitat: Dry, mesic, to wet forest Elevation: 150 to 1,590 m Kōpiko was already present at the project site and was left during clearing; it is therefore found in all treatments though none were outplanted. Fun Fact: Kōpiko has a hard, dense wood that is traditionally used for beating kapa. Kōpiko is named for the the distinctive line of glands along the bottom of the central vein (piko) of each leaf. Ke kōpiko i ka piko o Waiʻaleʻale (1756) A kōpiko tree on the summit of Waiʻaleʻale (A boast about an outstanding person)
‘Ōhi‘a lehua — Metrosideros polymorpha Family: Myrtaceae Endemic Habitat: Dry, mesic, to wet forest Elevation: Sea level to 2,500 m ‘Ōhiʻa was already present at the project site and was left during clearing; it is therefore found in all treatments though none were outplanted. Fun Fact: While in a jealous rage, Pele transformed her romantic interest, ʻŌhiʻa, into this gnarled tree. The lover of ʻŌhiʻa, Lehua, asked her ʻaumakua for help, so they transformed her into the flower to keep the lovers together. It is said that if you pick the lehua, it will rain because the lovers mourn their separation. Welehu ka malama, liko ka ʻōhiʻa (2932) Welehu is the month the ʻōhiʻa put forth leaf buds
Moderate redundant Mango (Mangifera indica) Hawai‘i ‘Ohe (Polyscias hawaiensis) Monkeypod (Samanea saman) ʻUlu (Artocarpus altilis) Avocado (Persea americana) Terminalia catappa Neneleau (Rhus sandwicensis) Hāpu’u (Cibotium spp.) Alaheʻe (Psydrax odorata) Kōlea lau nui (Myrsine lessertiana)
Slow redundant Mango (Mangifera indica) Kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum) Hawai‘i ‘Ohe (Polyscias hawaiensis) ʻŌhiʻa ʻai (Syzgium malaccense) Hala (Pandanus tectorius) Loulu (Pritchardia beccariana) Niu (Cocos nucifera) Antidesma platyphyllum Hāpu’u (Cibotium spp.) Alaheʻe (Psydrax odorata)
Moderate complementary Mango (Mangifera indica) Kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum) Kukui (Aleurites molucanna) Avocado (Persea americana) Milo (Thespesia populnea) Hala (Pandanus tectorius) Loulu (Pritchardia beccariana) Mamaki (Pipturus albidus) Neneleau (Rhus sandwicensis) Noni (Morinda citrifolia)
Slow complementary Mango (Mangifera indica) Kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum) Kukui (Aleurites molucanna) Avocado (Persea americana) Milo (Thespesia populnea) Hala (Pandanus tectorius) Loulu (Pritchardia beccariana) Mamaki (Pipturus albidus) Neneleau (Rhus sandwicensis) Noni (Morinda citrifolia)